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States as a weaker adversary than the ruthless Soviet Union. Bin
Ladin himself described the strategic results of the 9/11 attacks as
demoralizing the United States, causing the U.S. government to
restrict civil liberties, and perhaps most importantly galvanizing
Muslims around the world and forcing them to choose sides. Our
goal is for our (world Islamic) nation to unite in the face of the
Christian crusade, bin Ladin said after the attacks.8
Tight Operational Security
Contrary to some claims, the infiltration of the 9/11 hijackers into the
United States and their operations in America were not perfect. For
example, most of the conspirators made obvious errors in their visa
applications and once in America some of them associated with indi-
viduals under scrutiny by the FBI. But in general the plot reflected
strong security and no doubt factored in the U.S. government s lim-
ited domestic intelligence capabilities.
Most of the hijackers did not have terrorist records, helping them
escape the attention of U.S. intelligence.9 Fifteen of the men were from
Saudi Arabia, whose citizens faced relatively little scrutiny from the
U.S. visa officials. They got passports and visas under their real names,
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CHAPTER 2 " THE RISE OF MODERN TERRORISM 31
and then entered the United States from different locations at different
times. In accordance with the al-Qaida manual, the men shunned the
facial hair and garb of traditional Muslims. They were familiar with
Western culture and able to navigate American society. They clearly
attempted to keep a low profile, shopping at Wal-Mart and eating at
places such as Pizza Hut. According to the CIA, the hijackers avoided
laptops in favor of public Internet connections and used at least 133
different prepaid calling cards on a variety of phones.
Based on statements by bin Ladin and other information, while the
hijackers knew they were participating in a martyrdom or sui-
cide operation, many did not know details of the mission or its tar-
gets until it was well under way.10 In the vocabulary of intelligence,
the plot was tightly compartmented and difficult to penetrate.
Effective Execution
Al-Qaida also proved skilled at managing operations. When Flight 77
hijackers Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar proved to be terri-
ble flight students, Hani Hanjur arrived back in the United States.
Suspected plotters Ramzi bin al-Shibh and Zakaria Essabar couldn t
get into the United States, but the plot went on. Muhammad Atta,
who piloted the first plane into the World Trade Center, had visa
problems when trying to reenter the United States in January 2001
and was caught driving without a license, but managed to avoid
drawing the attention of authorities. Other hijackers escaped detec-
tion during traffic stops. Even when Zacarias Moussaoui was arrested
in August 2001 by FBI agents who considered him a possible suicide
hijacker, the plan was not derailed. Days after the arrest, the plotters
began buying their tickets. And on the morning of 9/11, many of their
plotters and their weapons made it through last-minute security
screenings. The ability of the terrorists to seize four aircraft and suc-
cessfully guide three of them into their targets reflected superb plan-
ning, significant skill, and superior tactical execution.
EFFECTS OF TWENTY- FI RST CENTURY TERRORI SM
The 2001 attacks certainly qualify as one of the worst crimes in
human history. Even considered in military terms, the human and
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32 PART 1 " HOW WE GOT HERE FROM THERE
financial destruction of 9/11 mark them as among the world s most
devastating attacks. While other uses of force have claimed more
lives, few have combined such terrible human losses with the mas-
sive economic damage of 9/11, impacts that were magnified by the
anthrax attacks that occurred later in 2001.
Human Costs The human cost of 9/11 can be measured in both physical and psy-
chological terms. By either calculation, the attacks exacted a terrible
price on the United States.
Life and Limb
Nearly 3,000 people were killed by the attack, many dying after
excruciating physical and psychological ordeals. For those without
personal connection to these losses, the scope of the suffering can
only be grasped fleetingly, perhaps in the awful images of people
choosing to leap hundreds of feet to their deaths from the World
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